Color vision has also been suggested to be useful for detecting predators, especially big cats (Pessoa et al. Furthermore, differences in teeth between males and females can tell us about competition over mates (see Chapter 6). Sagittal Crest Formation in Great Apes and Gibbons. Journal of Anatomy 230 (6): 820832. To be an efficient brachiator, a primate needs to have longer arms than legs, flexible shoulders and wrists, a short lower back, and no tail. Specialized traits are those that have been modified for a specific purpose. This classification was based on tarsiers, lemurs, lorises, and galagos all having grooming claws and similar lifestyles (e.g., small, nocturnal, more leaping locomotion, diet heavy in insects, more solitary). They are widely considered members of the haplorrhine group because they share several key derived traits with monkeys, apes, and humans, including dry noses, a fovea, not having a tapetum lucidum, and having eyes that are close together. Having a diet consisting primarily of gums and saps. Figure 5.36 Bonnet macaque DSC 0893 by T. R. Shankar Raman is used under a CC BY-SA 4.0 License. are spending more energy on vision and thus will have poorer smell (and a shorter snout). Scent marking: The behavior of rubbing scent glands or urine onto objects as a way of communicating with others. b. primarily social. How do Strepsirrhines differ from monkeys and apes? Figure 5.6b Insectivore characteristics original to Explorations: An Open Invitation to Biological Anthropology by Mary Nelson is under a CC BY-NC 4.0 License. Strepsirrhines have estrus (discreet mating periods), haplorrhines do not. Tarsiers are small-bodied primates that live in Southeast Asian forests (Figure 5.22) and possess an unusual collection of traits that have led to some debate about their position in the primate taxonomy. Humans differ from apes in many aspects of our morphology, behavior, and life history, all of which you will be learning about in later chapters. Female ring-tailed lemurs, for example, only come into estrus one day a year for a mere six hours. In New World monkeys, each X chromosome carries the genes for seeing one wavelength. The strepsirhines all share the characteristic of having a moist, largely hairless nose tip (rhinarium ). Howler monkeys are another well-known member of this group, earning their name due to their loud calls, which can be heard for miles away. Figure 5.9 These are examples of a typical brachiator. As you can probably guess based on their names, the two groups differ in terms of diet. Tooth comb or dental comb: A trait of the front, lower teeth of strepsirrhines in which, typically, the four incisors and canines are long and thin and protrude outward. Derived trait: A trait that has been recently modified, most helpful when assigning taxonomic classification. Most species are diurnal, with the exception of the tarsiers and the night monkeys, and they have trichromatic color vision. Premolars: Smaller than the molars, used for chewing. For example, all primates have body hair because we are mammals and all mammals share an ancestor hundreds of millions of years ago that had body hair. Molecular estimates based on mitochondrial genomes suggest Haplorhini and its sister clade, Strepsirrhini, diverged 74 million years ago (mya), but no crown primate fossils are known prior to the beginning of the Eocene, 56 mya. The Genus Pan includes two species: Pan troglodytes (the common chimpanzee) and Pan paniscus (the bonobo). These species are separated by the Congo River, with chimpanzees ranging across West and Central Africa and bonobos located in a restricted area south of the Congo River. A grouping that includes gorillas, chimpanzees, bonobos, humans, and their extinct relatives. The fastest-reproducing primates will produce offspring about every six months, while the slowest, the orangutan, reproduces only once every seven to nine years. The strepsirrhines are, in many ways, the most primitive primates. The author would very much like to thank the editors for the opportunity to contribute to this textbook, along with two anonymous reviewers who provided useful feedback on earlier drafts of this chapter. As a result, the hands and feet of primates have evolved to move around in a three-dimensional environment. Figure 5.19 Strepsirrhines at a glance a derivative work original to Explorations: An Open Invitation to Biological Anthropology by Stephanie Etting is under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 License. Pozzi, Luca, Jason A. Hodgson, Andrew S. Burrell, Kirstin N. Sterner, Ryan L. Raaum, and Todd R. Disotell. Folivores then have to chemically break down cellulose molecules into usable energy, so these animals need specialized digestive systems. Infraorder Catarrhini includes Old World monkeys, apes, and humans. Common species that are simians include the (Old World) baboons, macaques, gibbons, and great apes; and the (New World) capuchins, howlers and squirrel monkeys. Because of competition with larger-bodied monkeys and apes, mainland strepsirrhines are more restricted in the niches they can fill in their environments and so are not as diverse as the lemurs of Madagascar. Malagasy strepsirrhines display a variety of activity patterns. There are clear similarities between humans and the other apes in our morphology and life history. These shared traits include eye sockets that are slightly farther apart and are more square or rounded compared to the closely placed, ovoid eyes of orangutans. What strikes me as significant is that, although most people do not know the difference between a monkey, an ape, and a lemur, they nonetheless recognize something in the animals as being similar to themselves. Male orangutans are known to delay maturation until one of the more dominant, flanged males disappears. There are many other monkeys in the New World, including the gregarious capuchins (Figure 5.26) and squirrel monkeys, the pair-living titi monkeys, and the nocturnal owl monkeys. Figure 5.11: Primate taxonomy chart a derivative work original to Explorations: An Open Invitation to Biological Anthropology by Stephanie Etting is under a CC BY-NC 4.0 License. The lower primates or strepsirhines (suborder Strepsirhini) include lemurs, bush babies, lorises; the higher primates or haplorhines (suborder Haplorhini) include the tarsiers, Old and New World monkeys, apes and humans. Sagittal crest: A bony ridge along the top/middle of the skull, used for attachment of chewing muscles. Like strepsirrhines, tarsiers are nocturnal, but because they lack a tapetum lucidum, tarsiers compensate by having enormous eyes. Because humans are primates, we share a wide range of behavioral and morphological traits with the other species who also fall into this group. [4] Also included are Archicebidae, the discovery of which was announced by Ni et al in 2013. Bioarchaeology and Forensic Anthropology, 16. The bumps on the chewing surface of the premolars and molars, which can be quite sharp in some species. A space between the teeth, usually for large canines to fit when the mouth is closed. A grouping based on ancestral relationships; a branch of the evolutionary tree. Primates are phylogenetically divided into those with a rhinarium, the Strepsirrhini (the prosimians: the lorises, and the lemurs); and those without a rhinarium, the Haplorhini, (the Simians: monkeys, apes, and humans). There is a group of small-bodied monkeys in the New World who regularly give birth to twins, and some lemurs are able to give birth to multiple offspring at a time, but these primates are the exception rather than the rule. Knuckle-walking: A form of quadrupedal movement used by Gorilla and Pan when on the ground, where the front limbs are supported on the knuckles of the hands. Figure 5.29 summarizes the key traits of platyrrhines relative to the other infraorders of Haplorrhini. Haplorhini (133). As discussed earlier, all hominoids have an extended life history, taking a long time to grow and develop, and have a long life span. Primates also differ from other animals in our hands and feet. 2001. The postorbital bar is a derived trait of primates, appearing in our earliest ancestors, which you will read more about in Chapter 8. A trait that is useful for a wide range of tasks. Traits can be either primitive or derived. 2001). Describe the major primate taxa using their key characteristics. 1 / 27 Haplorrhines (anthropoids) are less similar to the ancestral mammal (and to living mammals) than are the strepsirrhines (prosimians). 2007). This means that both male and female howler monkeys are able to see reds and yellows. Family Daubentoniidae ( aye-ayes) ], Figure 5.28 Atelidae Family a derivative work by User:Miguelrangeljr is used under a CC BY-SA 3.0 License. Refers to the contrasting fur color of baby leaf monkeys compared to adults. New World Monkeys: Cebidae. These differences relate to the lower center of gravity needed by arboreal quadrupeds for balance in trees and the longer tail required for better balance when moving along the tops of branches. In this chapter, we surveyed the major taxonomic groups of primates, discussing where humans fit among our close relatives as well as discovering that primates are interesting animals in their own right. Mostly insectivores and frugivores, few folivores, Few insectivores, mostly frugivores and folivores, Mostly nocturnal, few diurnal or cathemeral, Many arboreal taxa, also many terrestrial taxa, Mostly solitary, some pairs, small to large groups, Only two are solitary, all others live in pairs, small to very large groups, Few taxa have little/none, many taxa show moderate to high dimorphism. Hone: When primates sharpen their canines by wearing them on adjacent teeth. Insects are easy to digest, so these primates have simple digestive tracts. Fovea: A depressed area in the retina at the back of the eye containing a concentration of cells that allow us to focus on objects very close to our face. You can see a summary of the primate suite of traits in Figure 5.3. Folivore: Having a diet consisting primarily of leaves. : Summary of key traits of the Infraorder Catarrhini as well as the characteristics used to distinguish between the two superfamilies within this group. to as 'prosimians' but it is now known that tarsiers are more advanced than lemurs and lorises and belong in a different group.Most strepsirrhines live in forests in Madagascar but some . 2006). The Order Primates is distinguished from other groups of mammals in having a suite of characteristics. Figure 5.27 Callitrichinae genus a derivative work by Miguelrangeljris is used under a CC BY-SA 3.0 License. Interestingly, birds, fish, and reptiles are tetrachromatic (they can see reds, yellows, blues, greens, and even ultraviolet), but most mammals, including some primates, are only dichromatic (they see only in blues and greens). Wright, Patricia C. 1999. lemurs, lorises, pottos, and galagos), cats, dogs, elephants, and walruses. The torso, shoulders, and arms of hominoids have evolved to increase range of motion and flexibility (Figure 5.9). Molar pattern of cercopithecoid monkeys in which there are usually four cusps that are arranged in a square pattern and connected by two ridges. Lastly, while humans show a great deal of variation across cultures, many human societies show patterns of female dispersal in which males stay in the group into which they were born while females leave (Burton et al. Terrestrial quadrupeds have longer limbs to help them cover more distance more efficiently. One of the objectives of this chapter, however, and of biological anthropology in general, is to understand our place in nature. Figure 5.17 Indri indri 0003 by Christophe Germain is used under a CC BY-SA 4.0 License. Wet noses, produced when the nose is connected to the upper lip. The primate suborder Strepsirrhini diverged from haplorrhines approximately 60Ma . The Order Primates is a diverse and fascinating group of animals united in sharing a suite of characteristicsvisual specialization, grasping hands and feet, large brains, and extended life historiesthat differentiates us from other groups of mammals. There are two well-known species of orangutan, one on each island. Figure 5.4 Ha,ha,ha . Because of these defenses, animals who eat leaves need a lot of specialized traits (Figure 5.6c). This is due to the unusual form of locomotion that hominoids are adapted for, brachiation (Figure 5.39). Leaves are the way plants get their energy from the sun, therefore, plants evolved to make their leaves very difficult for animals to eat. Contemporary Topics: Human Biology and Health, Stephanie Etting, Ph.D., Sacramento City College. Chimpanzees and bonobos both have broad, largely frugivorous diets and similar social groups. Some of their traits superficially resemble strepsirrhines, but they share many derived traits with haplorrhines. In humans, this is because about 1.7 million years ago, our ancestors moved into open savanna habitats, like those baboons live in today, and longer legs enabled them to move over long distances more efficiently. Old World monkeys are native to Africa and Asia today, inhabiting numerous environments: tropical rain forests, savannas, shrublands, and mountainous terrain. Shearing crests: Sharpened ridges that connect cusps on a bilophodont molar. A trait of the front, lower teeth of strepsirrhines in which, typically, the four incisors and canines are long and thin and protrude outward. Even without this strong genetic evidence, the African Clade of hominoids share many morphological similarities. [Includes Cebus apella (brown capuchin) at Animal Diversity Web by Phil Myers, Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0; Lophocebus albigena (gray-cheeked mangaby) at Animal Diversity Web by Phil Myers, Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0; Symphalangus syndactylus (siamang) at Animal Diversity Web by Phil Myers, Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.]. Opposable thumbs/toes are a derived trait that appeared in the earliest primates about 55 million years ago. Today, the Order Primates is a diverse group of animals that includes lemurs and lorises, tarsiers, monkeys of the New and Old Worlds, apes, and humans, all of which are united in sharing a suite of anatomical, behavioral, and life history characteristics. And, it turns out, these oddballs are our distant cousins. The people of Japan have coexisted with Japanese macaques for thousands of years, and so monkeys play key roles in both of the major Japanese religions. It has been proposed that the more complex neocortex of primates is related to diet, with fruit-eating primates having larger relative brain sizes than leaf-eating primates, due to the more challenging cognitive demands required to find and process fruits (CluttonBrock and Harvey 1980). Pessoa, Daniel Marques Almeida, Rafael Maia, Rafael Cavalcanti de Albuquerque Ajuz, Pedro Zurvaino Palmeiro Melo Rosa De Moraes, Maria Helena Constantino Spyrides, and Valdir Filgueiras Pessoa. Sunbathing hamadryas baboons led ancient Egyptians to associate them with Ra, the sun god, who was the son of Thoth. Unlike many animals, primates do not migrate. A depressed area in the retina at the back of the eye containing a concentration of cells that allow us to focus on objects very close to our face. However, it is now generally accepted that the tarsiers make up the earliest haplorhine group. Figure 5.10 Ateles-fusciceps 54724770b by LeaMaimone is under a CC BY 2.5 License. We also see variations among primate groups in social groupings: some taxa are primarily solitary, others live in pairs, and still others live in groups of varying sizes and compositions. The presence of body hair therefore doesnt allow you to distinguish whether monkeys are more closely related to apes or lemurs because they all share this trait. Loris mothers will then bathe their young in this toxic saliva, thus making the babies unappealing to predators. Our ability to manipulate objects is further enhanced by the flattened nails on the backs of our fingers and toes that we possess in the place of the claws and hooves that many other mammals have. This field highlights the particular challenges for humans of having to coexist with animals with whom we share so much in common. Other animals grow slowly, reproduce few offspring, reproduce infrequently, and live a long time. Matsui, Atsushi, Felix Rakotondraparany, Isao Munechika, Masami Hasegawa, and Satoshi Horai. In primates, these teeth usually have one or two cusps. early strepsirrhines rather than early haplorhines)[16], Ni et al, in announcing Archicebus achilles in 2013 as what they describe as the earliest known primate with such detailed remains, place it somewhat differently to the above as they place Omomyids within Tarsiiformes, with Omomyids and Tarsiidae sharing a common ancestor, and that common ancestor sharing a common Tarsiiform ancestor with the Archicebidae. Diastema: A space between the teeth, usually for large canines to fit when the mouth is closed. 2015. Their body sizes dont range as greatly as the lemurs, and neither do their diets. Tarsiers have different dental formulas on their upper and lower teeth. - or that parapiths and propliopiths are closely related but their common ancestor is closely related to the platyrrhines and the common ancestor of all three is related to the oligopiths, with extant catarrhines again being descended from the propliopiths; Heterodont: Having different types of teeth. 2014). It has photographs of skulls, teeth, hands, arms, and feet of many primate species. d. smaller brained. Figure 5.43b Male gorilla in SF zoo by Brocken Inaglory is used under a CC BY-SA 3.0 License. In non-primates this part of the brain is often smooth, but in primates it is made up of many folds which increase the surface area. Many lemurs are quadrupedal, but even the quadrupedal lemurs are quite adept at leaping. The underside of the tail has a tactile pad, resembling your fingerprints, for better grip. [Includes Katta csald by Veszprmi llatkert, CC BY-SA 3.0; Aye-aye at night in the wild in Madagascar by Frank Vassen, CC BY 2.0; Diademed ready to push off by Michael Hogan, designated to the public domain (CC0); Juvenile Black-and-White Ruffed Lemur, Mantadia, Madagascar by Frank Vassen, CC BY 2.0; Microcebus murinus -Artis Zoo, Amsterdam, Netherlands-8a by Arjan Haverkamp, CC BY 2.0; Slow Loris by Jmiksanek, CC BY-SA 3.0; Slender Loris by Kalyan Varma (Kalyanvarma), CC BY-SA 4.0; Garnetts Galago (Greater Bushbaby) by Mark Dumont, CC BY 2.0]. Tarsiers also have some traits that are more like strepsirrhines and some that are unique. Those with a better sense of smell usually have poorer vision than those with a relatively dull sense of smell. This nose shape is very different from what we see in catarrhines, the group that includes Old World monkeys, apes, and humans. The long snout and rhinarium reflect strepsirrhines greater reliance on olfaction relative to haplorrhines. This means that if you cover one eye with your hand, you can still see most of the room with your other one. In contrast, apes are less tolerant of drier, more seasonal environments and so have a relatively restricted geographic range. They conclude that either possibility is equally plausible. To successfully swing below branches, many changes to the body needed to occur. Plants want animals to eat their fruits because, in doing so, animals eat the seeds of the fruit and then disperse them far away from the parent plant. Siamangs, however, are all black with big throat sacs that are used in their exuberant vocalizations (Figure 5.41). Asian clade: A grouping that includes orangutans and their extinct relatives. Note the longer arms than legs, short back, and lack of a tail. Over 89 species from 12 of the 17 families of of primates eat meat. There are three genera of cebids: 1) Cebus, e.g., Kaapori capuchin and white-headed capuchin, 2) Sapajus, e.g., black capuchin and tufted capuchin, and 3) Saimiri, e.g., bare-eared squirrel monkey and Central American squirrel monkey.They are relatively small primates, ranging in weight from around 2.5 pounds (adult male squirrel monkey) to 8.5 pounds (adult male . In India, monkeys play a key role in the Hindu religion. 2001. With a few exceptions, most primates only have one offspring at a time. At the elbow end of the ulna, hominoids have a short olecranon process, which allows for improved extension in our arms. A bony projection of the ulna at the end near the wrist. And all monkeys eat about the same thing. Hamadryas baboons were also often kept as pets, as depicted in hieroglyphics, and occasionally mummified as well. In place of the rhinarium, Haplorhini have a more mobile, continuous, dry upper lip. [5] Genetically, five short interspersed nuclear elements (SINEs) are common to all haplorhines whilst absent in strepsirrhines. Hanuman, who resembles a monkey, is a key figure in the Ramayana. Ethnoprimatology: A subarea of anthropology that studies the complexities of human-primate relationships in the modern environment. Silk, Joan B., Jacintha C. Beehner, Thore J. Bergman, Catherine Crockford, Anne L. Engh, Liza R. Moscovice, Roman M. Wittig, Robert M. Seyfarth, and Dorothy L. Cheney. First, teeth are vital to survival. Flat nose with rounded nostrils pointing to the side. A Photographic Atlas for Physical Anthropology. There is a lot of interest in why some primates would re-evolve trichromacy. Regions Based on Social Structure. Current Anthropology 37 (1): 87123. Figure 5.40 Catarrhini at a glance a derivative work original to Explorations: An Open Invitation to Biological Anthropology by Stephanie Etting is under a CC BY-NC 4.0 License. Both species are moderately sexually dimorphic, with males about 20% larger than females. The two groups also differ in some other interesting ways. In areas where humans and primates have a long, shared history, non-human primates often play key roles in creation myths and cultural symbolism. Incisors: The spatula-shaped teeth at the front of the mouth. Platyrrhines include the smallest of the monkeys, the marmosets and tamarins (Figure 5.27). As a result, insectivorous primates usually have small molars with pointed cusps that allow them to puncture the exoskeleton of the insects (Figure 5.6b). All of this has led to the development of a new subarea of anthropology called Ethnoprimatology, which involves studying the political, economic, symbolic, and practical relationships between humans and non-human primates. This means that primates stay in a relatively stable area for their whole life, often interacting with the same individuals for their long lives.
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